Reprinted from Pope, H.G., Oliva, P.S. & Hudson, J. I. (2002). Scientific Status of Research on Repressed Memories. In D.L. Faigman, D.H.Kaye, M.J. Saks & J. Sanders (Eds.) Modern Scientific Evidence. St. Paul, MN: West Group. Posted with permission of Thomson West.
Pope et al "performed a non-selective literature search for examples of studies between 1960 and 1999 where the investigators performed psychological assessments on groups of survivors of specific, historically documented traumatic events. There is no shortage of such studies;" the studies summarized below that assessed "victims of all manner of traumatic events, are merely representative of a larger literature."
"[I]t is striking that none of the more than 11,000 victims is reported to have repressed the memory of the traumatic event. Admittedly, some of the survivors in some of the studies did exhibit amnesia for the trauma, but in all cases, the amnesia appears explainable for ordinary reasons, such as loss of consciousness or early childhood amnesia... Only two fragmentary case reports in two of the studies suggest even partial amnesia in individuals over the age of three who did not lose consciousness. Some of the studies in the table report "memory disturbances" among some trauma survivors. However, "memory disturbances" should not be misinterpreted as evidence that the subjects forgot the trauma itself. In fact, disturbances of memory and concentration are ubiquitous in mood and anxiety disorders, regardless of whether these disorders occur in the wake of trauma. Indeed, impairment of concentration is one of the criteria in DSM-IV for the diagnosis of major depressive disorder."
| Study | Event | No. of Subjects | Data Collection Methods | Amnesia? | Remarks |
| Strom et al., 1961 | Holocaust | 100 | Interviews | No | |
| Chodoff, 1963 | Holocaust | 23 | Psychiatric interviews | No | Subjects reported their experiences with "a vivid immediacy and wealth of detail." |
| Lepold et al., 1963 | Marine explosion | 34 | Interviews | No | Authors note that "repression does not appear possible." |
| Terr, 1979, 1983 | Chowchilla bus kidnapping | 26 | Interviews | No | |
| Eaton et al., 1982 | Holocaust | 135 | Interviews | No | Although 20 (15%) of the 135 survivors had memory problems, so did 15 (11%) of the 133 non-traumatized controls; none reported to have amnesia. |
| Wilkinson, 1983 | Hyatt skywalk collapse | 102 | Questionnaire, interviews | No | |
| Hoibert & McCaugher., 1984 | Collision at sea | 336 | Extracted records from Naval Health Research Ctr. | No | 11% were hospitalized for various psychiatric difficulties following the collision. None suffered from amnesia. |
| Dollinger, 1985 | Lightning strike disaster | 38 | Interviews | Yes (2 cases) | The 2 children that had amnesia were side flash victims. |
| Malmquist, 1986 | Children who witnessed parental murder | 16 | Questionnaires (Impact of Events Scale) | No | "Recollection of vivid memories of the event were present in all 16 of the children." |
| Kinzie et al., 1986, 1989; Sack et al., 1993 | Cambodian concentration camp victims | 40 | Interviews | No | |
| Shore et al., 1986 | Mt. St. Helens explosion | 548 | Interviews | No | |
| Aveline & Fowlie., 1987 | Ejection from military aircraft | 175 | Questionnaires | No | |
| Earls et al., 1988 | Flooding (children ages 6-17) | 32 | Interviews | No | Interviews were done with parents. |
| Malt, 1988 | Accidental injury | 107 | Interviews, questionnaires | No | |
| McFarlane (series) 1988 | Australian brush fires | 469 | Questionnaires, interviews | No | After 11 months, firefighters with PTSD actually displayed better memory than those without PTSD. |
| Pynoos and Nader, 1988 | Children who witnessed sexual assault of their mothers | 10 | Interviews | No | |
| Dahl, 1989 | Rape victims | 55 | Interviews, questionnaires | No | |
| Ersland et al., 1989 | Oil rig disaster | 134 | Questionnaires | No | |
| Feinstein, 1989 | Village ambushed in Namibia | 14 | Interviews | No | |
| Hytten & Hasle, 1989 | Fire | 58 | Questionnaires | No | Study done on non-professional rescue workers. |
| Maj et al., 1989 | Earthquake | 589 | Questionnaires, interviews | No | |
| Nadler and Ben-Shushan, 1989 | Holocaust | 34 | Interviews | No | |
| Pynoos & Nader, 1989 | Sniper attack at elementary school | 133 | Interviews | No | Some children "remembered" the sniper although they were not actually at the scene. None reported amnesia. |
| Stoddard et al., 1989 | Burned children | 30 | Interview, review of records | No | |
| Weisaeth, 1989 | Torture victims | 13 | Interviews, questionnaires | No | |
| Weisaeth, 1989 | Industrial disaster (explosion) | 125 | Interviews | No | Author notes memory impairment in 20 cases but not actual amnesia for the disaster reported. |
| Robinson et al., 1990 | Holocaust | 86 | Questionnaires | No | 82% of subjects reported hyperamnesia continuously since World War II. |
| Wagenaar and Groeneweg, 1990 | Holocaust | 78 | Review of testimony in De Rijke case | No | Almost all witnesses remembered Camp Erika in "great detail" even after 40 years. |
| Green et al., 1991 | Buffalo Creek Disaster (children) | 179 | Interviews | Yes | 7% unable to recall part of event, but 43 (25%) subjects were aged 2-7 at time of flood. |
| Nolen-Hoeksema and Morrow, 1991 | Earthquake | 137 | Questionnaires | No | |
| Realmuto et al., 1991 | Williams Pipeline Disaster | 24 | Interviews | ? | Amnesia only briefly mentioned; no cases presented. |
| Stuber et al., 1991 | Pediatric bone marrow transplant patients | 6 | Interviews and assessment through scales | No | |
| Weissberg and Katz, 1991 | Crash of Continental 1713 | 15 | Questionnaires, interviews | No | Study of hospital-based personnel who worked with crash victims |
| Brooks & McKinlay, 1992; Scott et al., 1995 | Crash of Pan Am 103 in Lockerbie | 66 | Interviews | No | |
| Breton et al., 1993 | Industrial disaster (PCB fire) | 87 | Verbal questionnaires | No | Study was done on children (ages 3-11) whose families were evacuated from disaster area. |
| Escobar et al., 1992 | Flash floods, mudslides | 139 | Interviews | No | Mention amnesia in context of "pseudoneurological" but finds similar symptoms in non-traumatized comparison subjects. No actual amnesia for the trauma reported. |
| Realmuto et al., 1992 | Cambodian refugees (children) | 47 | Questionnaires | No | |
| Rothbaum et al., 1992 | Rape victims | 95 | Questionnaires, interviews | No | Many subjects had impaired concentration and memory, but none described as having amnesia. |
| Cardena and Spiegel, 1993 | Earthquake | 100 | Questionnaires, interviews | No | "Dissociative symptoms" described, but no subject had amnesia for the earthquake. |
| Krell, 1993 | Holocaust | 25 | Interviews and therapy | No | Results largely non-quantitative. |
| Lundin & Bodegard, 1993 | Earthquake | 49 | Questionnaires | No | Study done on rescue workers. |
| Pelcovitz et al., 1994 | Physical abuse | 27 | Interviews | No | One refused to answer, but none reported as having amnesia. |
| Bowler et al., 1994 | Railroad chemical disaster | 220 | Questionnaires, interviews | No | Memory and concentration problems noted in both trauma group and non-traumatized comparison group. |
| Hardin et al., 1994 | Hurricane Hugo (adolescents) | 1482 | Questionnaires | No | |
| Jones et al., 1994 | Wildfires (children and adolescents) | 23 | Questionnaires, interviews | No | |
| Koopman et al., 1994 | Firestorms | 154 | "Dissociation" reported, but no actual amnesia for traumatic event. | ||
| Carr et al., 1995 | 1989 Newcastle Earthquake | 3007 | 17-page questionnaires | No | |
| Hagstrom, 1995 | Train collision (Norway) | 66 | Questionnaires | No | Avoidant behaviors noted but amnesia not mentioned. |
| Turner et al., 1995 | Underground railroad station fire | 50 | Assisted completion of questionnaires | No | |
| Lee et al., 1995 | World War II combat | 107 | Questionnaires | No | Cohort assembled in 1938 as college students and studied prospectively. |
| Ursano et al., 1995 | Explosion on USS Iowa | 54 | Questionnaires | No | Study of body handlers. |
| Weine et al., 1995, 1998 | "Ethnic cleansing" in Bosnia | 20/34 | Interviews, questionnaires | No | |
| Najarian et al., 1996 | Armenian Earthquake | 49 | Interviews, questionnaires | ? | "Psychogenic amnesia" mentioned in table but was twice as common in a non-traumatized group as in Earthquake group. No example presented of a subject who forgot the earthquake. |
| Savin et al., 1996 | Cambodian refugees | 99 | Interviews, questionnaires | No | |
| Shaw et al., 1996 | Hurricane Andrew (children) | 30 | Questionnaires and teachers' ratings | No | |
| Tyano, 1996 | Bus-Train Collision (children) | 83 | Questionnaires | No | Nine subjects actually on the bus that crashed, while 74 students witnessed the crash. |
| Terr et al., 1997 | Challenger explosion | 153 | Interviews regarding memories | No | Generally clear memories, though some mistakes; no amnesia for event. |
| LaGreca et al., 1996 | Hurricane Andrew | 442 | Interviews, questionnaires | No | Multiple instruments administered at three points after exposure. Despite elaborate analysis and details, no mention of amnesia for all or part of trauma. |
| Carlier et al., 1997 | Bijlmermeer plane crash | 136 | Interviews | Yes | 12 (8%) of 136 victims were said to have "psychogenic amnesia" but no examples are given, nor is any case described in which a victim forgot the crash itself. |
| Groenjian et al., 1997 | Armenian earthquake | 64 | Interviews | No | No mention of amnesia in either the 35 children receiving psychotherapy or the 29 children who did not receive psychotherapy. |
| DiGallo et al., 1997 | Road traffic accidents | 53 | Interviews | Yes | Although amnesia is mentioned, it is also noted that 10 subjects lost consciousness during the accident. All of these subjects had vivid memories of the time before and after losing consciousness. |
| Southwick et al., 1997 | Operation Desert Storm | 59 | Questionnaires | No | Describes inconsistencies in reports of veterans at 1 month and at 2 years post combat. However, the study provides no documentation that failure to report an event at either time point indicates amnesia for the event. |
| Engdahl et al., 1997 | Prisoners of war | 262 | Interviews, questionnaires | No | Detailed follow-up of 262 victims, including case reports. No mention of amnesia. |
| Mollica et al., 1997 | Cambodian refugees | 182 | Interviews | No | Interviewed about various psychological parameters; no mention of memory loss or amnesia. |
| North et al., 1997 | Mass shooting | 136 | Interviews | ? | Although "amnesia" is a symptom in about 10% of subjects, no evidence is presented that any subject actually forgot the shooting. |
| Jenkins et al., 1998 | Rape victims | 31 | Questionnaires | No | The victims displayed poor memory of word lists, but no one is described as showing amnesia for the rape itself. |
| Asarnow et al., 1999 | Northridge earthquake | 63 | Interviews | No | High rates of psychopathology but no mention of amnesia. |
| Koren et al., 1999 | Traffic accidents | 74 | Interviews | No | No amnesia mentioned on the follow up |
| Becker et al., 1999 | Bosnian War | 10 | Interviews | No | No descriptions of amnesia and no cases with scores greater than 1 on ratings of amnesia. |
| Favaro et al., 1999 | Nazi concentration camp victims | 98 | Interviews | No | |
| Sack et al., 1999 | Pol Pot victims | 27 | Interviews | No |
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